Annotated Bibliographies for Module 12
Reading #1
Lowe, R. K. & Schnotx, W. (2014). Animation principles in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 513-546). New York: Cambridge.
The use of animations in educational situations has drastically changed how information can be presented to learners. While animations represent a powerful tool, conventional animations often included in instructional situations are often poorly constructed and do not follow good principles of design which weakens their impact. The Animation Processing Model presents five design principles that will improve learning situations that incorporate animations. It is important for instructional designers to define the purpose of instruction before creating the animation to make sure the animation supports the instructional objective. Designers should also ensure that cognitive processing principles required to learn from an animation are incorporated as part of the design and are consistent with the knowledge and ability level of the learners. Prior research in this area has been limited in nature and future research should strive for more than a cursory understanding of how animations can positively impact learners.
Reading #2:
Plass, J. L. & Schwartz, R. N. (2014). Multimedia learning with simulations and microworlds. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 729-761). New York: Cambridge.
Simulations and microworlds represent an exciting new use of technology to help learners interact with an environment in a controlled setting. These digital environments are similar, with simulations defined as an environment that demonstrates a specific process or system and microworlds providing a more detailed experience that allows the user more control to create and modify the situation. A multitude of research studies suggest that simulations have a positive effect on learning in a variety of disciples and situations if proper instructional design principles are followed. These principles, such as a learner control, feedback, cuing, and others are related to other areas of instructional design. Instructional designers should incorporate the use of inquiry, set clear goals for the learning, and ensure that the environments support the overall learning environment to be most effective. Although research does exist, more is needed to further understand the implications of these digital environments on learning.
Reading #3:
Tobias, S., Fletcher, J. D., Bediou, B., Wind, A. P., & Chen, F. (2014). Multimedia learning with computer games. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 762-784). New York: Cambridge.
Computer/video games can be defined in multiple ways, but at their most basic element, they are multimedia environments that respond to the actions of users and follow specific rules for how presented tasks are to be completed. Their use in educational settings has shown to be effective as they can induce frequent cognitive processing and can be motivating when properly used in the context of an educational situation. Research in this area is wide-ranging but all seem to find positive effects with proper use and design. Cognitively, the multimedia interactivity of games can increase cognition in the visuospatial domain and maintain the attention of the learner to a stronger degree than learning situations that do not utilize games. This positive effect has been noted in various groups, such as senior citizens, patients in medical situations, students in school environments. It is important that designers ensure that the games used for learning actually support instruction and exist to do more than just provide a fun game experience for students. Practical applications are continuing to develop.
Reading #4
Höffler, T., & Leutner, D. (2007). Instructional animation versus static pictures: A meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 17, 722 -738.
Although static pictures and animation are available to instructional designers, it is important to understand the overall effectiveness of both tools related to the instructional situation. The rise of technology in recent years has led to an increase in the use of animations and pictures and brings forward the question as to which tool is more effective. In this meta-analysis of the research, the authors found that, generally speaking, animations were superior to static pictures in terms of learning material and transfer of learned material to additional tasks. However, the role of the animation is also an important variable, with representational animations directly related to a task clearly being superior to animations serving a mere decoration purpose. The research also strongly suggests that a higher benefit is observed when animations are used to teach procedural-motor knowledge rather than for problem-solving or declarative knowledge purposes. Taking into account all of these findings, it should be inferred that animations, when used properly, can be more effective in instructional situations than pictures to communicate instructional goals.
Reading #5:
Mayer, R. E. & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words? Journal of educational psychology, 82(4). 715-726.
It is commonly accepted that the use of illustrations can be effective learning tools; however, illustrations can take many forms. This study was designed to test different forms of illustrations to see which proved more effective in a science example of how a braking system works. Illustrations tested included an illustration of the device with text labels of each part, an illustration with text labels of each major action step in the device, and an illustration that incorporated elements of both parts and steps of action. These were compared against a control group that did not receive instruction that used illustrations. The results showed that the more detailed illustration that incorporated parts and steps led to better problem-solving transfer skills and conceptual understanding of the task. Designers should ensure that appropriate text is used in illustrations, that the illustration is appropriate to the learning objective, and appropriate for the prior knowledge level of the learners. If these principles are followed, dynamic illustrations can be an effective tool to increase conceptual understanding of learning objectives.
Lowe, R. K. & Schnotx, W. (2014). Animation principles in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 513-546). New York: Cambridge.
The use of animations in educational situations has drastically changed how information can be presented to learners. While animations represent a powerful tool, conventional animations often included in instructional situations are often poorly constructed and do not follow good principles of design which weakens their impact. The Animation Processing Model presents five design principles that will improve learning situations that incorporate animations. It is important for instructional designers to define the purpose of instruction before creating the animation to make sure the animation supports the instructional objective. Designers should also ensure that cognitive processing principles required to learn from an animation are incorporated as part of the design and are consistent with the knowledge and ability level of the learners. Prior research in this area has been limited in nature and future research should strive for more than a cursory understanding of how animations can positively impact learners.
Reading #2:
Plass, J. L. & Schwartz, R. N. (2014). Multimedia learning with simulations and microworlds. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 729-761). New York: Cambridge.
Simulations and microworlds represent an exciting new use of technology to help learners interact with an environment in a controlled setting. These digital environments are similar, with simulations defined as an environment that demonstrates a specific process or system and microworlds providing a more detailed experience that allows the user more control to create and modify the situation. A multitude of research studies suggest that simulations have a positive effect on learning in a variety of disciples and situations if proper instructional design principles are followed. These principles, such as a learner control, feedback, cuing, and others are related to other areas of instructional design. Instructional designers should incorporate the use of inquiry, set clear goals for the learning, and ensure that the environments support the overall learning environment to be most effective. Although research does exist, more is needed to further understand the implications of these digital environments on learning.
Reading #3:
Tobias, S., Fletcher, J. D., Bediou, B., Wind, A. P., & Chen, F. (2014). Multimedia learning with computer games. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 762-784). New York: Cambridge.
Computer/video games can be defined in multiple ways, but at their most basic element, they are multimedia environments that respond to the actions of users and follow specific rules for how presented tasks are to be completed. Their use in educational settings has shown to be effective as they can induce frequent cognitive processing and can be motivating when properly used in the context of an educational situation. Research in this area is wide-ranging but all seem to find positive effects with proper use and design. Cognitively, the multimedia interactivity of games can increase cognition in the visuospatial domain and maintain the attention of the learner to a stronger degree than learning situations that do not utilize games. This positive effect has been noted in various groups, such as senior citizens, patients in medical situations, students in school environments. It is important that designers ensure that the games used for learning actually support instruction and exist to do more than just provide a fun game experience for students. Practical applications are continuing to develop.
Reading #4
Höffler, T., & Leutner, D. (2007). Instructional animation versus static pictures: A meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 17, 722 -738.
Although static pictures and animation are available to instructional designers, it is important to understand the overall effectiveness of both tools related to the instructional situation. The rise of technology in recent years has led to an increase in the use of animations and pictures and brings forward the question as to which tool is more effective. In this meta-analysis of the research, the authors found that, generally speaking, animations were superior to static pictures in terms of learning material and transfer of learned material to additional tasks. However, the role of the animation is also an important variable, with representational animations directly related to a task clearly being superior to animations serving a mere decoration purpose. The research also strongly suggests that a higher benefit is observed when animations are used to teach procedural-motor knowledge rather than for problem-solving or declarative knowledge purposes. Taking into account all of these findings, it should be inferred that animations, when used properly, can be more effective in instructional situations than pictures to communicate instructional goals.
Reading #5:
Mayer, R. E. & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words? Journal of educational psychology, 82(4). 715-726.
It is commonly accepted that the use of illustrations can be effective learning tools; however, illustrations can take many forms. This study was designed to test different forms of illustrations to see which proved more effective in a science example of how a braking system works. Illustrations tested included an illustration of the device with text labels of each part, an illustration with text labels of each major action step in the device, and an illustration that incorporated elements of both parts and steps of action. These were compared against a control group that did not receive instruction that used illustrations. The results showed that the more detailed illustration that incorporated parts and steps led to better problem-solving transfer skills and conceptual understanding of the task. Designers should ensure that appropriate text is used in illustrations, that the illustration is appropriate to the learning objective, and appropriate for the prior knowledge level of the learners. If these principles are followed, dynamic illustrations can be an effective tool to increase conceptual understanding of learning objectives.