Annotated Bibliographies for Module 2
Reading #1:
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 71-77). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
This reading selection introduces Driscoll’s view of the human cognitive information processing model. Upon its acceptance following the first World War, this model represented a critical break from the behaviorist point-of-view that had domination American psychology for the early half of the 20th Century. Whereas behaviorists believe that environmental factors are directly and solely responsible for behaviors, adherents to the cognitive information processing model believe that the particular cognitive processing system of the learner serves as an important step that exists between the environment and the behavior and effects the outcome.
The basic tenets of this system include three stages (sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory). Sensory memory holds details following some type of sensory input. This is the first stage of information processing and information is held here very briefly, perhaps just a few seconds. Working memory (also known as short term memory) is stage in which further processing occurs to prepare the information for long-term storage. The amount of information that can be held in working memory at one time is limited. The final stage is long-term memory. This stage is theoretically unlimited in its ability to store information and is permanent.
Although diagrams make this process seem linear, this is not always the case. Whether the processing occurs in a “bottom-up” or “top-down” fashion largely depends on the type of learning and the strength of prior relatable experience. Thus, meaningful instruction must be built upon the prior knowledge of learners and help them to make connections between what they already know and what new material the instructor is asking them to learn.
Reading #2:
Guenther, R.K. (1998). Introduction and historical Overview. Human Cognition (pp. 1-27). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Guenther (1998) presents a historical overview of the development of human cognition as a field of research in psychology. He defines cognitive psychology as an “inquiry into how people acquire and use knowledge.” Although commonly acknowledged today, the belief that physical processes and stimuli are reflected in mental processes occurring during cognition is something only recently accepted. Earlier theories explained the function of the mind and body in supernatural ways. As critical thought developed, non-natural views such as dualism (the belief that the mind exists of a different substance to the natural world and is outside the effect of physical laws) were supplanted by more rational beliefs such a materialism (a belief that the mind is simply a label for the way that the brain functions).
Cognitive science developed in the 19th and 20th centuries and presented vast improvements in understanding how the human mind works. The central tenant of cognitive science is that the mind reflects only the physical processes of the brain and operates with similar efficiency as a machine. Following the second world war, the rise of computer technology further developed this model of information processing reflecting computer processes with similar modes of stimuli, inputs, and outputs. Most cognitive scientists now reject the direct comparison of information processing to computer processing due to the dissimilar nature of how these contrasting ideas function. Neural net models have emerged as a more realistic view of human cognition. These models embody the essential physiological processes that take place in the brain. The more strongly two neurons are connect in the model, the more readily one neuron can influence the firing rate of another, leading to a better degree of cognition and memory.\
Reading #3:
Smith & Ragan (1999). Introduction to Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 1-12). New York: Wiley.
This selection provides a general overview of the instructional design process. Smith and Ragan define instruction design as the “systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation.” For this process to be effective, planning and reflection are absolutely necessary and should be informed by instructional design principles. The text goes to great length to explain differences among key terms; instruction, education, training, and teaching. According to the authors, instruction implies an intentional process by which learners acquire particular skills. The term education is used in more informal terms. Training refers to educational experiences in which skills will be applied almost immediately. Teaching, as used here, has the connotation of being delivered by a human being whereas instruction includes all types of planned learning experiences. These terms are important as they relate to a central point, which is design being a critical piece in the instructional design process. It is the depth and detail that distinguishes design from routine planning.
The second half of the article discusses characteristics of successful designers. Smith and Ragan state that successful designers are voracious consumers of instructional materials, keep the overall goal in mind when designing, and use message design conventions to ensure communication is clear. By exhibiting these characteristics, a designer can effectively analyze needs of learners, develop instructional strategies to meet those needs, and evaluate the results of the instruction once the unit is complete. Although this model implies a linear sequence, the authors acknowledge that this is not always the case. They put forth a “ball of worms” model to represent the interconnectedness of all parts of the design process.
Reading #4:
Smith & Ragan (1999). Foundations of Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 13-29). New York: Wiley.
Chapter two of the Smith and Regan text discusses many of the philosophical perspectives that effect the instructional design process. The authors believe that knowledge of the philosophical and theoretical principles of education and learning are important for novice instructional designers as these theories are often the sources upon which many principles of design arise. The three commonly accepted educational philosophies of constructivism, empiricism, and pragmatism influence various aspects of instructional design. Constructivism has long been acknowledged within the educational community. The philosophy is limited in its ability to explain the cognitive processes that occur during learning, with some adherents rejecting the explanation of learning cognition offered in more modern cognitive learning theories.
In addition to philosophical foundations, many assumptions related to successful instructional design are noted. These include having a clear idea of what the learner should learn, universal principles of instruction that lead to successful skill acquisition, and having a congruence amongst goals, activities, and assessments, among many others.
A knowledge of learning theories is also important for instructional designers. Whereas behaviorism was once the predominant learning theory in the United States, this has since been supplanted by cognitive learning theories such as information-processing. This theory explains the cognitive processes that occur during learning as information is processed from a standpoint of sensory perception, to working memory, and finally to long-term storage.
Reading #5 (Additional):
Phillips, D.C. (1995). The good, the bad, and the ugly: The many faces of constructivism. Educational Researcher, 24(7). 5-12.
I selected this article because I still felt slightly confused about the different viewpoints within the constructivist philosophy after the prior readings from this module. I felt better about my confusion after reading this literature review as the essay made clear that constructivism has many adherents and a large portion of those seem to be at odds with one another. The basic tenet of constructivism (according to the author) is that humans are not born with “cognitive data banks” already filled with empirical knowledge. Constructivists also say that people also do not acquire knowledge by simply absorbing information from the outside world. Finding consensus beyond these points (and sometimes even within these points) is nearly impossible in constructivist philosophy. The author attempts to bring order to these varying views by presenting the differences along three dichotomous dimensions: individual psychology versus public discipline, humans as creators versus nature as the instructor, and active knowledge in terms of individual cognition or in terms of social and political processes. While the range of viewpoints on this topic can be confusing for the uninitiated learner, it does have some benefit to educational scholarship at large. Most notably, this debate regarding constructive thought places emphasis on the nature of active participation on the part of learners; a level of engagement long known to be important to teachers. However, this lack of consensus does present challenges as the various sects of the philosophy exist in a state of contention with one another, often exhibiting distrust of the opposing sides in a manner similar to that seen amongst the world’s great religious institutions.
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 71-77). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
This reading selection introduces Driscoll’s view of the human cognitive information processing model. Upon its acceptance following the first World War, this model represented a critical break from the behaviorist point-of-view that had domination American psychology for the early half of the 20th Century. Whereas behaviorists believe that environmental factors are directly and solely responsible for behaviors, adherents to the cognitive information processing model believe that the particular cognitive processing system of the learner serves as an important step that exists between the environment and the behavior and effects the outcome.
The basic tenets of this system include three stages (sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory). Sensory memory holds details following some type of sensory input. This is the first stage of information processing and information is held here very briefly, perhaps just a few seconds. Working memory (also known as short term memory) is stage in which further processing occurs to prepare the information for long-term storage. The amount of information that can be held in working memory at one time is limited. The final stage is long-term memory. This stage is theoretically unlimited in its ability to store information and is permanent.
Although diagrams make this process seem linear, this is not always the case. Whether the processing occurs in a “bottom-up” or “top-down” fashion largely depends on the type of learning and the strength of prior relatable experience. Thus, meaningful instruction must be built upon the prior knowledge of learners and help them to make connections between what they already know and what new material the instructor is asking them to learn.
Reading #2:
Guenther, R.K. (1998). Introduction and historical Overview. Human Cognition (pp. 1-27). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Guenther (1998) presents a historical overview of the development of human cognition as a field of research in psychology. He defines cognitive psychology as an “inquiry into how people acquire and use knowledge.” Although commonly acknowledged today, the belief that physical processes and stimuli are reflected in mental processes occurring during cognition is something only recently accepted. Earlier theories explained the function of the mind and body in supernatural ways. As critical thought developed, non-natural views such as dualism (the belief that the mind exists of a different substance to the natural world and is outside the effect of physical laws) were supplanted by more rational beliefs such a materialism (a belief that the mind is simply a label for the way that the brain functions).
Cognitive science developed in the 19th and 20th centuries and presented vast improvements in understanding how the human mind works. The central tenant of cognitive science is that the mind reflects only the physical processes of the brain and operates with similar efficiency as a machine. Following the second world war, the rise of computer technology further developed this model of information processing reflecting computer processes with similar modes of stimuli, inputs, and outputs. Most cognitive scientists now reject the direct comparison of information processing to computer processing due to the dissimilar nature of how these contrasting ideas function. Neural net models have emerged as a more realistic view of human cognition. These models embody the essential physiological processes that take place in the brain. The more strongly two neurons are connect in the model, the more readily one neuron can influence the firing rate of another, leading to a better degree of cognition and memory.\
Reading #3:
Smith & Ragan (1999). Introduction to Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 1-12). New York: Wiley.
This selection provides a general overview of the instructional design process. Smith and Ragan define instruction design as the “systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation.” For this process to be effective, planning and reflection are absolutely necessary and should be informed by instructional design principles. The text goes to great length to explain differences among key terms; instruction, education, training, and teaching. According to the authors, instruction implies an intentional process by which learners acquire particular skills. The term education is used in more informal terms. Training refers to educational experiences in which skills will be applied almost immediately. Teaching, as used here, has the connotation of being delivered by a human being whereas instruction includes all types of planned learning experiences. These terms are important as they relate to a central point, which is design being a critical piece in the instructional design process. It is the depth and detail that distinguishes design from routine planning.
The second half of the article discusses characteristics of successful designers. Smith and Ragan state that successful designers are voracious consumers of instructional materials, keep the overall goal in mind when designing, and use message design conventions to ensure communication is clear. By exhibiting these characteristics, a designer can effectively analyze needs of learners, develop instructional strategies to meet those needs, and evaluate the results of the instruction once the unit is complete. Although this model implies a linear sequence, the authors acknowledge that this is not always the case. They put forth a “ball of worms” model to represent the interconnectedness of all parts of the design process.
Reading #4:
Smith & Ragan (1999). Foundations of Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 13-29). New York: Wiley.
Chapter two of the Smith and Regan text discusses many of the philosophical perspectives that effect the instructional design process. The authors believe that knowledge of the philosophical and theoretical principles of education and learning are important for novice instructional designers as these theories are often the sources upon which many principles of design arise. The three commonly accepted educational philosophies of constructivism, empiricism, and pragmatism influence various aspects of instructional design. Constructivism has long been acknowledged within the educational community. The philosophy is limited in its ability to explain the cognitive processes that occur during learning, with some adherents rejecting the explanation of learning cognition offered in more modern cognitive learning theories.
In addition to philosophical foundations, many assumptions related to successful instructional design are noted. These include having a clear idea of what the learner should learn, universal principles of instruction that lead to successful skill acquisition, and having a congruence amongst goals, activities, and assessments, among many others.
A knowledge of learning theories is also important for instructional designers. Whereas behaviorism was once the predominant learning theory in the United States, this has since been supplanted by cognitive learning theories such as information-processing. This theory explains the cognitive processes that occur during learning as information is processed from a standpoint of sensory perception, to working memory, and finally to long-term storage.
Reading #5 (Additional):
Phillips, D.C. (1995). The good, the bad, and the ugly: The many faces of constructivism. Educational Researcher, 24(7). 5-12.
I selected this article because I still felt slightly confused about the different viewpoints within the constructivist philosophy after the prior readings from this module. I felt better about my confusion after reading this literature review as the essay made clear that constructivism has many adherents and a large portion of those seem to be at odds with one another. The basic tenet of constructivism (according to the author) is that humans are not born with “cognitive data banks” already filled with empirical knowledge. Constructivists also say that people also do not acquire knowledge by simply absorbing information from the outside world. Finding consensus beyond these points (and sometimes even within these points) is nearly impossible in constructivist philosophy. The author attempts to bring order to these varying views by presenting the differences along three dichotomous dimensions: individual psychology versus public discipline, humans as creators versus nature as the instructor, and active knowledge in terms of individual cognition or in terms of social and political processes. While the range of viewpoints on this topic can be confusing for the uninitiated learner, it does have some benefit to educational scholarship at large. Most notably, this debate regarding constructive thought places emphasis on the nature of active participation on the part of learners; a level of engagement long known to be important to teachers. However, this lack of consensus does present challenges as the various sects of the philosophy exist in a state of contention with one another, often exhibiting distrust of the opposing sides in a manner similar to that seen amongst the world’s great religious institutions.