Annotated Bibliographies for Module 4
Reading #1
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 91-110). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
This section of the chapter provides a general overview of long-term memory theories and discusses implications of such theories on the educational process. Theories of long-term memory functioning vary and acceptance has changed over time. Generally, memory can be considered using two constructs; episodic memory (memories of specific events) and semantic memory (general information). Semantic memory is of most interest to educators. Educators take interest in how information is represented in memory, how it is retrieved, and how it can be forgotten. Theories such as the network model, feature comparison model, propositional model, and parallel distributed processing model have all been put forth by researchers to explain how our minds store, interact, and retrieve mostly verbal and procedural information. Each theory has relative strengths and weaknesses. To account for visual imagery, the theories of the dual-code model of long-term memory can be used. Stated simply, the dual-code model assumes two systems for memory; one for verbal information and one for nonverbal information. Information that can be coded into both systems is more likely to be recalled. No matter what theory is considered, the retrieval of information is of prime importance. Recall and recognition refer to how information is brought back to ones mind, either through free recall or with clues being provided to invoke recognition.
For educators, this makes several points worth considering. To be effective, research suggests that instruction should be highly organized and should include extensive and varied practice to allow students multiple way to encode new material. Additionally, it is worthwhile to spend time enhancing the encoding and memory skills of students along with consideration of metacognitive principles related to self-control of informational processing within the individual learner.
Reading #2
Clark, J.M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3, 149-210
In this article, the authors explain the dual coding theory (referred to as DCT) as a psychological mechanism with great implications for educators. According to this theory, two main systems exist within human long-term memory. The first is a verbal system which contains visual and auditory words that function to symbolize both concrete and abstract thoughts. In contrast, the non-verbal system includes visual imagery such as shapes, sounds, smells and other inputs separate from verbal communication. The main premise of DCT is that information encoded in both systems (verbal and non-verbal) has a greater likelihood of recall than information stored separately. Processing in DCT can be classified in one of three ways; representational (where a direct and literal representation of the input is activated in one of the two systems), referential (where activation occurs between the two systems), or associative (which occurs within the verbal or non-verbal system). The authors present a great body of research suggesting benefits to learners when concepts of DCT are applied. The use of concrete imagery holds many benefits for educational practitioners and learners.
Reading #3
Mayer, R.E., Sims, V.K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 389-401.
In this research study, the authors examine how individual differences affect students’ learning from visual and verbal information. This is predicated by the noted lack of empirical research in designing computer-based instructional methods that incorporated words and pictures. Much of the framework for this study was based upon Clark & Paivio’s earlier work with dual coding theory, which theorizes a model of two separate systems of memory with verbal and non-verbal information processed separately. Utilizing a two experiment design, students classified as both high and low in terms of spatial ability viewed a computer-generated animation and listened to a narration either simultaneously or successively. One experiment provided instruction as to how a bicycle tire pump works and the other experiment presented the workings of the human respiratory system. Previous studies indicate that learning is most effective when animation and narration are presented simultaneously. This is known as the contiguity effect. The results of this study seems to confirm prior beliefs in this effect as inexperienced students were better able to transfer what they had learned when visual and verbal explanations were presented simultaneously. Students with high-spatial ability demonstrated the largest benefit to simultaneous instruction whereas students with weak spatial skills did not do as well. Overall, these results would support earlier research in dual-coding theory as it relates to multimedia learning.
Reading #4
Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2003). Return of the mental image: Are there really pictures in the brain? Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 113-118.
The author of this article presents a striking rebuke of the so-called “picture theory” in psychology. The basic premise of this theory is that representation of information in memory is stored as small pictures that are recalled as needed to provide a stimulus response or to engage cognitively with a stimulus. Many examples of research in support of picture theory are reported and summarized in the article; however, the author points out that the results of these research articles and the belief in the apparent spatial nature of images in the brain could be explained more satisfactorily using other methods. This is an important viewpoint to consider in regard to our articles from this week’s module as a great deal of emphasis in dual-coding theory relates to mental imagery. Pylyshyn makes a convincing argument that while mental imagery can be helpful in terms of encoding and recalling information, it should not go so far as to lead one to believe that the specific images themselves are what the brain is storing.
Reading #5
Rieber, L. P. (1990). Animation in computer-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 30(1), 77-86.
This article reviews empirical research about the effectiveness of animation in computer-based instruction. Although certainly dated by the standards of today, I selected this article because it was cited in the Mayer & Sims (1994) article from our weekly readings and represents an early look at beliefs related to animations and instructional goals. Early theories related to animated images equated the effectiveness of such a tool to static images. That is, it was believed that general research on static images would extend to animated images as well. Research into static image effectiveness suggest that images are better than words as it relates to recall tasks and that younger children specifically seem to perform better when presented with an image than older children. At the time this article was written, empirical research into animation was nearly non-existent. However, a combination of the research that did exist and observational assessments from the author would lead to a few recommendations. First, animation should be incorporated only when it relates to the learning task. Second, novice learners may not have enough relevant background knowledge to attend to relevant information provided by animation. Finally, interactivity of animation may be the greatest benefit of its use. I would be curious to analyze more current research regarding animation as this field of computer science has grown tremendously in the 28 years since this article was first published. It may be that more recent advances in animation could lead to different results and suggestions.
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 91-110). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
This section of the chapter provides a general overview of long-term memory theories and discusses implications of such theories on the educational process. Theories of long-term memory functioning vary and acceptance has changed over time. Generally, memory can be considered using two constructs; episodic memory (memories of specific events) and semantic memory (general information). Semantic memory is of most interest to educators. Educators take interest in how information is represented in memory, how it is retrieved, and how it can be forgotten. Theories such as the network model, feature comparison model, propositional model, and parallel distributed processing model have all been put forth by researchers to explain how our minds store, interact, and retrieve mostly verbal and procedural information. Each theory has relative strengths and weaknesses. To account for visual imagery, the theories of the dual-code model of long-term memory can be used. Stated simply, the dual-code model assumes two systems for memory; one for verbal information and one for nonverbal information. Information that can be coded into both systems is more likely to be recalled. No matter what theory is considered, the retrieval of information is of prime importance. Recall and recognition refer to how information is brought back to ones mind, either through free recall or with clues being provided to invoke recognition.
For educators, this makes several points worth considering. To be effective, research suggests that instruction should be highly organized and should include extensive and varied practice to allow students multiple way to encode new material. Additionally, it is worthwhile to spend time enhancing the encoding and memory skills of students along with consideration of metacognitive principles related to self-control of informational processing within the individual learner.
Reading #2
Clark, J.M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3, 149-210
In this article, the authors explain the dual coding theory (referred to as DCT) as a psychological mechanism with great implications for educators. According to this theory, two main systems exist within human long-term memory. The first is a verbal system which contains visual and auditory words that function to symbolize both concrete and abstract thoughts. In contrast, the non-verbal system includes visual imagery such as shapes, sounds, smells and other inputs separate from verbal communication. The main premise of DCT is that information encoded in both systems (verbal and non-verbal) has a greater likelihood of recall than information stored separately. Processing in DCT can be classified in one of three ways; representational (where a direct and literal representation of the input is activated in one of the two systems), referential (where activation occurs between the two systems), or associative (which occurs within the verbal or non-verbal system). The authors present a great body of research suggesting benefits to learners when concepts of DCT are applied. The use of concrete imagery holds many benefits for educational practitioners and learners.
Reading #3
Mayer, R.E., Sims, V.K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 389-401.
In this research study, the authors examine how individual differences affect students’ learning from visual and verbal information. This is predicated by the noted lack of empirical research in designing computer-based instructional methods that incorporated words and pictures. Much of the framework for this study was based upon Clark & Paivio’s earlier work with dual coding theory, which theorizes a model of two separate systems of memory with verbal and non-verbal information processed separately. Utilizing a two experiment design, students classified as both high and low in terms of spatial ability viewed a computer-generated animation and listened to a narration either simultaneously or successively. One experiment provided instruction as to how a bicycle tire pump works and the other experiment presented the workings of the human respiratory system. Previous studies indicate that learning is most effective when animation and narration are presented simultaneously. This is known as the contiguity effect. The results of this study seems to confirm prior beliefs in this effect as inexperienced students were better able to transfer what they had learned when visual and verbal explanations were presented simultaneously. Students with high-spatial ability demonstrated the largest benefit to simultaneous instruction whereas students with weak spatial skills did not do as well. Overall, these results would support earlier research in dual-coding theory as it relates to multimedia learning.
Reading #4
Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2003). Return of the mental image: Are there really pictures in the brain? Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 113-118.
The author of this article presents a striking rebuke of the so-called “picture theory” in psychology. The basic premise of this theory is that representation of information in memory is stored as small pictures that are recalled as needed to provide a stimulus response or to engage cognitively with a stimulus. Many examples of research in support of picture theory are reported and summarized in the article; however, the author points out that the results of these research articles and the belief in the apparent spatial nature of images in the brain could be explained more satisfactorily using other methods. This is an important viewpoint to consider in regard to our articles from this week’s module as a great deal of emphasis in dual-coding theory relates to mental imagery. Pylyshyn makes a convincing argument that while mental imagery can be helpful in terms of encoding and recalling information, it should not go so far as to lead one to believe that the specific images themselves are what the brain is storing.
Reading #5
Rieber, L. P. (1990). Animation in computer-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 30(1), 77-86.
This article reviews empirical research about the effectiveness of animation in computer-based instruction. Although certainly dated by the standards of today, I selected this article because it was cited in the Mayer & Sims (1994) article from our weekly readings and represents an early look at beliefs related to animations and instructional goals. Early theories related to animated images equated the effectiveness of such a tool to static images. That is, it was believed that general research on static images would extend to animated images as well. Research into static image effectiveness suggest that images are better than words as it relates to recall tasks and that younger children specifically seem to perform better when presented with an image than older children. At the time this article was written, empirical research into animation was nearly non-existent. However, a combination of the research that did exist and observational assessments from the author would lead to a few recommendations. First, animation should be incorporated only when it relates to the learning task. Second, novice learners may not have enough relevant background knowledge to attend to relevant information provided by animation. Finally, interactivity of animation may be the greatest benefit of its use. I would be curious to analyze more current research regarding animation as this field of computer science has grown tremendously in the 28 years since this article was first published. It may be that more recent advances in animation could lead to different results and suggestions.