Annotated Bibliographies for Module 7
Reading #1:
Mayer, R. E. (2014) Introduction to multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 1-26). New York: Cambridge.
Mayer uses chapter 1 of this handbook to explain his definition of multimedia learning and to provide a detailed overview of successful applications of multimedia learning. He defines multimedia learning as “presenting words and pictures that are intended to promote learning.” He considers this to be important because research strongly suggests that people can learn more deeply from words and picture than from words alone. Multimedia can take a variety of formats. Complex formats such as animated slideshow presentations and more simplistic constructions such as textbooks that include pictures all qualify as multimedia. The rationale for using multimedia to promote learning is that it takes advantage of human dual-processing cognitive architecture; that is, words and pictures can stimulate both the verbal and visual channels leading to more effective learning. The research base in support of multimedia learning is robust. Mayer takes a “learner-centered” approach in his research of multimedia learning, asking how multimedia can be adapted to enhance learning as opposed to focusing first on the technology can be used to design instruction. Technology-centered approaches have had mixed results in terms of effectiveness throughout the years. The goal of multimedia instruction is to promote meaningful learning through active learning processes. This is not so much a focus on the learner being physically active during the instructional process (although they can be), but rather designing multimedia presentations to promote active cognitive processing.
Reading #2:
Mayer, R. E. (2014) Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 43-71). New York: Cambridge.
This chapter from Richard Meyer continues many of the thoughts developed earlier in the first chapter of the Handbook of Multimedia Learning. He begins by reiterating the multimedia principle; that is, people can learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone. However, he makes a clear distinction that simply adding pictures will not guarantee improvement in learning. Well-designed multimedia presentations take into account our knowledge of how the human mind works. This belief is known as the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and contain three assumptions. The first is a dual-channel assumption which says that humans have separate processing channels for verbal and visual information. The second assumption is that humans are limited in the amount of information that each channel can process at one time, known as a limited-capacity assumption. The final assumption is that humans actively engage in cognitive processing in order to construct mental representations of their experiences, known as the active processing assumption. It is in this final assumption that a major portion of the article is devoted. It is through active engagement in cognitive processes that meaningful learning can occur. This requires the learner to cognitively select and organize words and pictures and eventually integrate these elements to construct new understandings. The effectiveness of these processes is largely determined by the amount of demand placed on cognitive capacity. It is important for instructional designers to create multimedia presentations that reduce extraneous processing often caused by poor instructional design, manage essential processing caused by the complexity of the material, and foster generative processing to make sense of the material.
Reading #3:
Schnotz, W. (2014) Integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 72-103). New York: Cambridge.
Schnotz proposed an integrated model of text and picture comprehension in this article referred to as the ITPC model. Based upon the work of numerous other cognitive researchers, the ITPC model demonstrates how comprehension can be formed through a combination of various inputs. Multimedia learning is highly applicable to this theory as it involves the integration of verbal and visual information at the heart of the ITPC model. Schnotz defines this in the article by saying “multimedia learning occurs when … the individual uses external representations in order to construct internal representations of the learning content in working memory and if he or she stores these representations in long-term memory.” This process begins when information enters the cognitive system through sensory registers such as the eyes and ears. The information can be further processed in working memory before being comprehended and passed into long-term memory when it can later be recalled. He divides the pathways to comprehension in different areas, largely passed on how the information first reaches the sensory registers. These areas include listening comprehension, reading comprehension, visual picture comprehension, and auditory picture comprehension from sounds. The ITPC model takes all of these areas into account. Although boundary conditions exist based on both the ability of the student and the quality of the materials being used for instruction, empirical evidence derived from research validates the importance of the model and shares many commonalities with Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning describes in previous chapters. Overall, the ITPC model should be understand as a framework for understanding how learning occurs as an interaction amongst multiple inputs such as spoken text, written text, visual pictures, and sound.
Reading #4:
Mayer, R.E., & Anderson, B. (1991). Animations Need Narrations: An Experimental Test of a Dual-coding Hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 484-490.
This research study was one of the first to test the effectiveness of computer animations as a multimedia learning tool in science instruction, which was emerging as a new and accessible means of communicating ideas when first published in in 1991. Previous research suggests that a strong positive correlation exists when words and pictures were presented in an integrated way as opposed to separately. This led Mayer to investigate if this same finding could be found between animations and spoken words. In these experiments, novice level college science students received instruction in multiple ways. The students viewed an animation of how a bicycle tire pump works with narrated description of the operation being given before or during the animation. In transfer tests administered after viewing the animation, the group that received the narration during the animation outperformed the group that heard the narration after the animation. Essentially, the results suggest that animation without narration can have the same effect on understanding as no instruction at all. The results support the integrated dual-code theory of Piavio, which says that learners can create visual and verbal modes of representation as well as make connections between these two channels. Instructional designers should apply this principle to their creations to ensure that animations can be used effectively.
Reading #5
Mayer, R. E. (2014). Incorporating motivation into multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 171-173.
This article focuses on the role of motivation as a means to foster generative processing, seen as a critical step in Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning to promoting active learning. I selected this article because many of the articles we have read up to this point have not focused as much on the role of motivation for successful multimedia learning and I wanted to learn more about this. Mayer defines generative process as “cognitive processing aimed at making sense of the material and is caused by the learner’s effort to engage in learning processes such as selecting, organizing, and integrating.” Although not experimental in nature, Mayer presents many other previous research studies that examine the role of motivation to some extent. One major motivating factor appears to be the use of appealing graphics in multimedia learning. Instructional designers should use these types of graphics when possible so long as it effectively demonstrates a concept as part of the instruction and does not overload the cognitive capacity of the learner. A second suggestion is incorporating challenging scenarios as part of a multimedia presentation, such as having an onscreen peer incorrectly state information to which the learner must investigate and refute. Challenging scenarios that cause the learner to think deeply about a concept and cognitively engage with the material are more likely to be effective in raising the motivation level. The key concept to remember from an instructional design perspective is to ensure that the learner is not overloaded with extraneous processing as a result of multimedia choices or overly distracted as a result of the instruction.
Mayer, R. E. (2014) Introduction to multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 1-26). New York: Cambridge.
Mayer uses chapter 1 of this handbook to explain his definition of multimedia learning and to provide a detailed overview of successful applications of multimedia learning. He defines multimedia learning as “presenting words and pictures that are intended to promote learning.” He considers this to be important because research strongly suggests that people can learn more deeply from words and picture than from words alone. Multimedia can take a variety of formats. Complex formats such as animated slideshow presentations and more simplistic constructions such as textbooks that include pictures all qualify as multimedia. The rationale for using multimedia to promote learning is that it takes advantage of human dual-processing cognitive architecture; that is, words and pictures can stimulate both the verbal and visual channels leading to more effective learning. The research base in support of multimedia learning is robust. Mayer takes a “learner-centered” approach in his research of multimedia learning, asking how multimedia can be adapted to enhance learning as opposed to focusing first on the technology can be used to design instruction. Technology-centered approaches have had mixed results in terms of effectiveness throughout the years. The goal of multimedia instruction is to promote meaningful learning through active learning processes. This is not so much a focus on the learner being physically active during the instructional process (although they can be), but rather designing multimedia presentations to promote active cognitive processing.
Reading #2:
Mayer, R. E. (2014) Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 43-71). New York: Cambridge.
This chapter from Richard Meyer continues many of the thoughts developed earlier in the first chapter of the Handbook of Multimedia Learning. He begins by reiterating the multimedia principle; that is, people can learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone. However, he makes a clear distinction that simply adding pictures will not guarantee improvement in learning. Well-designed multimedia presentations take into account our knowledge of how the human mind works. This belief is known as the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and contain three assumptions. The first is a dual-channel assumption which says that humans have separate processing channels for verbal and visual information. The second assumption is that humans are limited in the amount of information that each channel can process at one time, known as a limited-capacity assumption. The final assumption is that humans actively engage in cognitive processing in order to construct mental representations of their experiences, known as the active processing assumption. It is in this final assumption that a major portion of the article is devoted. It is through active engagement in cognitive processes that meaningful learning can occur. This requires the learner to cognitively select and organize words and pictures and eventually integrate these elements to construct new understandings. The effectiveness of these processes is largely determined by the amount of demand placed on cognitive capacity. It is important for instructional designers to create multimedia presentations that reduce extraneous processing often caused by poor instructional design, manage essential processing caused by the complexity of the material, and foster generative processing to make sense of the material.
Reading #3:
Schnotz, W. (2014) Integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 72-103). New York: Cambridge.
Schnotz proposed an integrated model of text and picture comprehension in this article referred to as the ITPC model. Based upon the work of numerous other cognitive researchers, the ITPC model demonstrates how comprehension can be formed through a combination of various inputs. Multimedia learning is highly applicable to this theory as it involves the integration of verbal and visual information at the heart of the ITPC model. Schnotz defines this in the article by saying “multimedia learning occurs when … the individual uses external representations in order to construct internal representations of the learning content in working memory and if he or she stores these representations in long-term memory.” This process begins when information enters the cognitive system through sensory registers such as the eyes and ears. The information can be further processed in working memory before being comprehended and passed into long-term memory when it can later be recalled. He divides the pathways to comprehension in different areas, largely passed on how the information first reaches the sensory registers. These areas include listening comprehension, reading comprehension, visual picture comprehension, and auditory picture comprehension from sounds. The ITPC model takes all of these areas into account. Although boundary conditions exist based on both the ability of the student and the quality of the materials being used for instruction, empirical evidence derived from research validates the importance of the model and shares many commonalities with Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning describes in previous chapters. Overall, the ITPC model should be understand as a framework for understanding how learning occurs as an interaction amongst multiple inputs such as spoken text, written text, visual pictures, and sound.
Reading #4:
Mayer, R.E., & Anderson, B. (1991). Animations Need Narrations: An Experimental Test of a Dual-coding Hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 484-490.
This research study was one of the first to test the effectiveness of computer animations as a multimedia learning tool in science instruction, which was emerging as a new and accessible means of communicating ideas when first published in in 1991. Previous research suggests that a strong positive correlation exists when words and pictures were presented in an integrated way as opposed to separately. This led Mayer to investigate if this same finding could be found between animations and spoken words. In these experiments, novice level college science students received instruction in multiple ways. The students viewed an animation of how a bicycle tire pump works with narrated description of the operation being given before or during the animation. In transfer tests administered after viewing the animation, the group that received the narration during the animation outperformed the group that heard the narration after the animation. Essentially, the results suggest that animation without narration can have the same effect on understanding as no instruction at all. The results support the integrated dual-code theory of Piavio, which says that learners can create visual and verbal modes of representation as well as make connections between these two channels. Instructional designers should apply this principle to their creations to ensure that animations can be used effectively.
Reading #5
Mayer, R. E. (2014). Incorporating motivation into multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 171-173.
This article focuses on the role of motivation as a means to foster generative processing, seen as a critical step in Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning to promoting active learning. I selected this article because many of the articles we have read up to this point have not focused as much on the role of motivation for successful multimedia learning and I wanted to learn more about this. Mayer defines generative process as “cognitive processing aimed at making sense of the material and is caused by the learner’s effort to engage in learning processes such as selecting, organizing, and integrating.” Although not experimental in nature, Mayer presents many other previous research studies that examine the role of motivation to some extent. One major motivating factor appears to be the use of appealing graphics in multimedia learning. Instructional designers should use these types of graphics when possible so long as it effectively demonstrates a concept as part of the instruction and does not overload the cognitive capacity of the learner. A second suggestion is incorporating challenging scenarios as part of a multimedia presentation, such as having an onscreen peer incorrectly state information to which the learner must investigate and refute. Challenging scenarios that cause the learner to think deeply about a concept and cognitively engage with the material are more likely to be effective in raising the motivation level. The key concept to remember from an instructional design perspective is to ensure that the learner is not overloaded with extraneous processing as a result of multimedia choices or overly distracted as a result of the instruction.